COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

COMMUNICATION SQUARE

Any medium or method used to communicate with other people is known as communication technology.

Here, to explain this topic i m using picture-communication methods to communicate with you people.

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

• EARLY COMMUNICATIONS

stone markethand signals

smoke signals

trail signals

• WRITING

alphabets

braille

letters and words

writing materials

• SIGN LANGUAGE

Diagram showing the twenty-six hand signals for the letters of the alphabet: -

Sign language hand positions for all letters of the alphabet: -

Hand movement for sign language demonstrating the the letter 'A': -

• SIGN AND SYMBOLS

crests

flags

Medals and badges

• POSTAL SERVICES

pigeon posts

mail deliveries

parcels

letters and envelops

postcards

• ADVERTISING

advertising in a magazine

gun safety poster, USA

Sample Packaging, Market Research Questionnaire, Storyboard and Press Advertisement for Advertising Campaign

television, radio and shop display

• PRINTING AND PUBLISHING

books

comics

magazines

news papers

• TELECOMMUNICATIONS

facsimiles

telephone

telegraph

TELEVISION , VIDEO & RADIO

CD/DVD

PROGRAMS


TELEVISION STATEMENTS



RADIO



NEW FORMS OF COMMUNICATIONS

Instant messaging, blogs, chat rooms are becoming an important way to communicate with other people. I did my internship with a distributor company, who is involved in distributing automative products overall the India used internet/intranet facility to communicate with employees. They use telephone to communicate with employees for communication regarding daily activities. And when same information is to be passed to every employee e-mail is used effectively.
In present scenario, companies like IBM effectively using blogs to communicate with employees as well as other people.

IDENTITY, IMAGE & REPUTATION

Above are examples of identities of different corporate.



A company’s identity is the visual manifestation of the company’s reality as conveyed through the organization’s name, logo, motto, products, services, buildings, stationary, uniforms, and all other tangible pieces of evidence created by the organization and communicated to variety of constituencies. Constituencies then form perceptions based on the messages that companies send in tangible form. If these images accurately reflect organization’s reality, the identity program is a success. If the perceptions differ from reality, either the strategy is ineffective or the corporation’s self-understanding needs modification.

Image is a reflection of an organization’s identity. It is the organization as seen from the viewpoint of its constituencies. Depending on which constituency is involved, an organization can have many different images.

While image can vary among constituencies, identity needs to be consistent. One constituency, FOR EXAMPLE, might see ADL as a consulting firm that is too involved in defense sector and therefore might have a negative image of the company; another constituency might be delighted with the extensive work the consulting firm has done to help the defense industry become stronger over the last 20 years and might then have a positive image of the firm. But at least they have the firm’s identity right.


SHAPING IDENTITY

Things which contribute positively to corporate identity: - an inspirational corporate vision, careful corporate branding (with a focus names and logos); and importantly, consistent self – presentation.

A Vision That Inspires

Most central to corporate identity is the vision that encompasses the company’s core values, philosophies, standards, and goals. Corporate vision is a common thread that all employees, and ideally all other constituencies as well, can relate to.
Thinking about this vision in terms of a narrative or story of sorts can help ensure the overall coherence and continuity of a company’s vision and the collective messages it sends constituencies.

Names and Logos

A company’s value can be significantly influenced by the success of its corporate branding strategy. Coca-Cola, for example, has a value that far exceeds its total tangible assets because of its strong brand name. Branding and strategic brand management is critical components of identity management.

Companies often institute name changes either to signal identity changes or to make their identities better reflect their realities. Andersen Consulting’s name change to Accenture is an example.


In late 2000, Anderson consulting, global technology and consulting company announced a name change that would take effect January 1, 2001. The new company would be called Accenture, a play on the words “accent” and “future” that was meant to be “a youthful and dynamic expression of the firm’s new positioning and bridge builder between the traditional and new economies. The name also clearly distinguished the company’s identity from that of its former parent company.

Logos are another important component of company’s identity – perhaps even more important than names because of their visual nature (which can allow them to communicate even more about a company than its name) and their increasing prevalence across many types of media.

Logos can be simply symbols, like Nike swoosh, or they can be symbols that represents names, like the Target, “bull’s eye” or Arm and Hammer’s arm and hammer. Logos can be stylized depictions of names or part of names (like the “golden arches” that form the “M” in “McDonalds”), or stylized names with added mottos or symbols.

Accenture’s logo, for example, is the company name with a “greater than” symbol above the “t” that is meant to connote the firm’s goal of pointing the way forward and exceeding clients’ expectations.

An organization’s vision should manifest itself consistently across all its identity elements, from logos and mottos to employee behavior.




MANAGING IDENTITY PROCESS

Conduct an Identity Audit
Set Identity Objectives
Develop Design and Names
Develop Prototypes
Launch and Communicate
Implement the Program


Corporate Identity

We recognise business brands by their distinctive identity. Good design, thorough integration and meticulous execution, is a far better investment than a shoddy job - but which is more common?

Ten Things You Should Do

Fit the identity to the company: - The corporate ID should reflect the company personality - its values, its roots, its technology and culture. Corporate re-branding is a good way to signal change.

Use professionals: - Sorry, but someone has to tell the MD that the doodle on the doily they brought back from the restaurant just isn’t good enough.

Consider all the elements and where they will be used: - Corporate identity embraces more than just logos and print. It usually includes color, typefaces, tag lines, and often extends to buildings, signage, vehicles, staff uniforms - and, importantly, the internet.

Think both little and large: - Logos and typefaces need to work when they are tiny - as on a business card, and huge - as on the side of a truck or on an advertising hoarding.

Think monochrome and color: - Not all your print will need your fancy full color logo, so make sure it works in mono as well so invoices, data sheets, manuals and all the things that don’t have to be color can be mono. This will save you a fortune.

Think multimedia: - Images and colors will need to be reproduced on a range of media - from an embroidered badge on a uniform, through CMYK dots in print to RGB on your web site. The original design must be consistent with all media.

Document the standards: - Maintain a set of reference standards, artworks, templates for key documents, Pantones for color, sample typefaces, and so on, together with their digital equivalents. This way you always have a documented standard for reference in commissioning new work and monitoring projects. Large companies commonly have a complete manual. Make sure all those that the need manual, have a copy.

Accept no variations: - Don't ever accept “this is almost like” from printers or anyone. If you do you are on a slippery slope that ends with your corporate ID in tatters.

Protect and defend: - Visual symbols, colors and distinctive shapes can all be patented. Searches done during application will prevent you infringing someone else’s identity (costly). Registration provides you with the means to defend your own.

Proclaim your new identity: - You need to explain to your own people, and to your customers, why you are updating your identity, what the new symbols mean and the changes this signifies. You will need a good PR company for this.


Five Things You Should Not Do

Don’t bastardize your own visual symbols: - Never allow anyone to print your symbols in the wrong color, in reverse, in negative, with funny lettering or in any form but the standard and approved. This is dangerous and undermines all efforts to achieve consistency and win respect.

Don’t allow any encroachment on your identity: - It is your intellectual property so throw off any squatter quickly.
Don’t change your identity without good reason or too frequently: - People get to know, recognize and value your business identifiers. Change without reason and you start again from the question ‘Who are you?

Don’t think you can do it all in house: - Just because you can access good design software, it does not mean that you are a graphic designer. Use this for internal documents, but for critical design elements, strategic advice and implementation use professionals who know what they are doing.



CORPORATE IMAGE



This corporate image was designed for Ventura Technology Group, a growing memory manufacturing company. they photographed some of their products and tied in stock photography to create this unique image. its purpose was to communicate their International focus, care for people and advanced technology


An organization’s image is a function of how constituencies perceive the organization based upon all the messages it sends out through names and logos, and through self-presentations, including expressions of its corporate vision.

Organization should seek to understand their image not only with customers, but also with other key constituencies such as investors, employees, and the community. Often, a company’s image with a given constituency is driven not only by its own unique corporate identity, but also by the image of industry or group it belongs to.

Every industry is witnessing unprecedented levels of competition. As competition intensifies, companies must work hard to differentiate themselves from their peers. The companies must carve out a unique image in the minds of their key stakeholders based on their visions, values, unique strengths and the value that they bring to the lives of customers, shareholders and communities they serve. Maximizing shareholder value alone is not enough.
Each company must identify and consistently project the unique value that it brings to the marketplace. As the pace of change intensifies, and as managements respond to these changes with newer products and services, the companies have to redefine themselves for their present and future stakeholders.

Turning to employee constituency, a company’s image with its employees is particularly important because of the vital role that employees play with the company’s other constituencies.
Starbucks coffee has built one of the strongest brands and reputations in America by creating an equally powerful story and unified culture that begins inside and works its way out.



CORPORATE REPUTATION

The foundation of a solid reputation exists when an organization’s identity and its image are aligned.
Reputation differs from image because it is built up over time and is not simply a perception at a given time. It differs from identity because it is a product of both internal and external constituencies, whereas identity is constructed by internal constituencies (the company itself).


Importance of Reputation

The importance of reputation is evidenced by several prominent surveys and ranking that seeks to identify the best and worst among them: Fortune’s “Most Admired” list; Business Week and interbrand’s “Best Global Brands” ranking. Such highly publicized rankings have gained so much attention that some corporate PR executives’ bonuses have actually been based on Fortune’s list of America Most Admired Companies.

A strong reputation has important strategic implications for a firm, because, it calls attention to a company’s attractive features and widens the options available to its managers, for instance, whether to charge higher or lower prices for products and services or to implement innovative programs.

Reputation can also help companies to weather crises more effectively.
For example, strong reputation helped Johnson & Johnson survive the Tyneol cyanide tampering crisis in the early 1980s.
The changing environment for business has implications for reputation. The proliferation of media and information, the demand for increased transparency, and the increasing attention paid to social responsibility all speak for a greater focus on the part of organizations on building and maintaining strong reputations.





Reputation Management

In today’s times perception is reality, and the company’s reputation capital is perhaps its most important asset. If the reputation of a well-known company is damaged the company can wither and die in a matter of months, destroying shareholder value and hurting the interests of virtually every category of stakeholders. Conversely, even a lesser- known company which builds a solid reputation can thrive and grow by competing effectively in the marketplace for customers, employees, vendors, desirable business partners and capital. In the process, the company is able to deliver sustained shareholder value.Every action of a company has a bearing on its reputation. In such an environment, active and deliberate corporate reputation management is a necessary extension of traditional brand management. After all, the primary brand is the overall corporate brand.


References:
Argenti, Paul A. (2007). Corporate communication (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill Irwin, ISBN: 0072990546

MEDIA RELATIONS

The media are both a constituency and a conduit through which investors, suppliers, retailers, and consumer receive information about and develop images of company. The media’s role of disseminator of information to a firm’s key constituencies has gained increasing importance over the years.

NEWS MEDIA

The news media are omnipresent in our society. With the advent of television in the late 1940s and early 1950s and the tremendous growth of internet in the 1990s, what had once been the domain of the print medium in newspaper increasingly has become part of the visual realm through television sets and computers.

In recent years, news of corporations, the stock market, and business personalities has often become the lead story on national news television and radio broadcast. With the 24-hours networks and all-day business coverage you can find on FOX, CNBC and CNN, corporate news is virtually impossible to ignore. People began to see companies as controlling important parts of their lives but not having to answer to anyone in the way that government did to voters. Special interest groups emerged to deal with this problem and to make business more accountable.

BUILDING GOOD RELATIONS WITH THE MEDIA

To build better relationships with the members of the media, organizations must take the time to cultivate relationships with the right people in the media. This might be handled by employees within company’s media relation department (if one exists) or given to a public relations firm to handle.

Measure of success in the media relations business has for years been the amount of “ink” (or coverage) that a company gets, whether aided by in-house professionals or an outside consultant.


RESPONDING TO MEDIA CALLS

Companies can strengthen their relationships with the media through the way they handle requests for information. Responding to such requests carefully can make a powerful difference in how the company appears in the story.

Things to remember when respond to media calls:

• Calls should come into central office that deals with all requests for information from important national media. Calls should not be answered by operator or electronic system who cannot distinguish between important and unimportant calls from media.


• The person who takes the call should try to find out what angle the reporter is taking on the story.


• The person responsible for that telephone call should try to get as much information as possible while being careful not to give in return any information that is not already public knowledge.


• The tone of conversation should be as friendly as possible, and the media relations professional should communicate honestly about the possibilities of arranging an interview or meeting other requests. At the same time, he or she should find out what kind of deadline the reporter is working under.

Effective media relations are vital to the success of any corporation’s overall communications strategy. A sound media relations program can deliver huge benefits to a corporation.


MEDIA INTERVIEWS

Some entrepreneurs have a love affair with the media. Others tremble in fear. Developing a positive media relationship is largely a matter of understanding their needs and presenting useful information, exclusives and opportunities to meet senior people.

Ten Things You Should Do

Have clear objectives: - Know what you want to say and why you want to say it. Stick to four or five key points that you want to make.

Understand the needs of journalists: - They want news. They want exclusives. Give them facts to support your key points; let them see the research and analysis that backs your opinions. Give information in a format that is immediately useful.

Be quotable: - Think of a sound bite that nicely summarizes each of your key points.

Keep it simple: - Unless you know the journalist has in-depth knowledge of your field, avoid jargon, technical language and acronyms.

Plan and rehearse: - Examine current issues and trends in your industry, anticipate the questions you will be asked and prepare clear and consistent answers. Have a trial run with a colleague. Arrange professional media training for yourself if you need to bolster skills and confidence further.

Keep control: - Ensure that you meet in a comfortable and quiet room where you will not be interrupted. Answer the questions asked but raise the issues that are relevant to the points you want to put over.

Provide a briefing pack: - This should contain a printed copy of your key points with relevant information written in a form the journalist can take and use easily. Include good quality images or video in a digital format on disk. Check preferences for file type and PC or Mac format. Providing links to material on web sites is useful but it is better to include material on disk and as hard copies in the pack if possible.

Provide appropriate hospitality: - If someone has spent several hours traveling to see you, it is only reasonable to provide refreshment (tea, coffee, soft drinks, sandwiches or a light lunch). Offer to cover their travel expenses.

Provide access to senior managers and specialists: - This shows that you respect the journalist’s need for quality information.

Say thank you: - A brief note after the meeting is the sort of simple courtesy that cements the relationship and may lead to a continuing positive dialogue.


Five Things You Should Not Do

Don’t seek or accept an interview if you are not prepared: - Be prepared - and you can then exploit all the opportunities that come your way.

Don’t voice negative or controversial opinions: - This can reflect as badly on you as on the subject you are talking about.

Don't mess around with dates: - Journalists are busy people so once the date is set keep to it, however, be prepared to change if the journalist needs to change date.

Don't go for a big lunch or consume excess alcohol: - This creates the wrong impression and may put you in a less controlled situation where you say things you hadn’t intended.

Don't infringe a journalist’s exclusivity period: - By all means keep and update the briefing pack for the next journalist that visits after the exclusivity period has passed.


To Create Better Relations with Media

Some PR’s may claim “personal media contacts” are the key to successful PR. Exercising these media contacts may involve them charging meals and drinks to your account. Don’t entertain this notion. Good PR is about developing a sound professional relationship with journalists - that means providing them with the information and opportunities they need to interest their readers.

Ten Things You Should Do

Understand your media: - Editors and journalists are gatekeepers standing between you and the public you wish to address. Look at journal profiles, and forward features to define with your PR Company which groups you need to target and with what frequency.

Understand what your editors want: - Look at samples of key journals, web sites and other outlets on your target list. What is the mix of commissioned articles, features, releases and advertorials? What are the typical copy length, style, and tone of voice? Aim to match these criteria.

Offer exclusives: - More valuable than a three-course lunch - professional editors will appreciate exclusive features, exclusive access to senior management and exclusive facility visits.

Provide good copy: - Good copy is on time, the right length, in a suitable style, adopting the right tone and delivered in a format for easy editing and inclusion.

Submit good supporting pictures: - Including professionally taken pictures (video clips for broadcast/sound bites for radio) - help to sell the story. As with copy, look at what is used as a guide to format.

Demonstrate authority: - Good journalism - and by implication good PR - is based on facts not fluff, give statistics, quote authoritative sources, use reliable research.

Remember the power of the sound bite: - In writing as in broadcast, the brief sentence that summarizes your case in a few easily remembered words will win the hearts of editors.

Aim for high production values: - Editors can get very upset by sloppy copy, poor punctuation, bad spelling and fuzzy pictures.

Know when to phone: - Editors are busy people. There are times when you will have to call to sell in a story - but not as the latest issue is being put to bed.

Say “thank you”: - When an editor takes time out to visit you, publishes your 2000 word feature verbatim or gives you a front cover picture, then do reciprocate with a well meant “thank you”.

Five Things You Should Not Do

Don’t use standard or out of date lists: - This is a common reason for unsuitable material being sent to editors and one of the quickest ways to annoy them. Your PR Company should research the media for each project from an up to date database and send only to relevant titles.

Don’t claim copyright: - This should be true for all material offered for publication free of fee - consent should also extend to web use.

Don’t flog dead dogs: - If an editor is clearly not interested in the story you are pitching, withdraw politely and offer the story to someone else.

Don’t link editorial with advertising: - Unless the item is an “advertorial” in which case it is advertising.

Don’t compromise the editor’s integrity: - Over elaborate entertaining and high value gifts may be construed as some sort of bribe and can backfire.

video link: - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2bL_VV5uvlY

(Valerie Jennings, CEO and president of Jennings Public Relations & Advertising, reveals effective tips and tactics about social media.)

Reference

Argenti, Paul A. (2007). Corporate communication (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill Irwin, ISBN: 0072990546

Theories of Communication

Technically communication is a process where a sender sends the message to a receiver through the various channels and with the same or the other channel sender gets the feedback from receiver.

The different types of communication: - intrapersonal, interpersonal, group and mass communication. Each type of communication includes few basic elements namely- sender, receiver, message, channel, feedback and barrier. To simplify and understand the process of communication different models are interpreted.

Communication theory models offer a convenient way to think about communication, providing a graphical checklist, which one can use to create anything from a speech to a major advertising campaign. Communication models are visualizations of communication process. They are basic theories concerning the elements of communication and how they operate and interact.


Basic components that are part of all communication models:

SOURCE MESSAGE RECEIVER
S ---------> M --------> R (linear)

Aristotle’s model of communication

Formal communication theory (rhetorical theory) goes back 2500 years ago to Classical Greece when Plato, Aristotle, and the Sophists were speech teachers. Classical Rhetoric . The study of communication in Greek society was called RHETORIC, and this was how Greek philosophers thought about communication.

The Greek tradition was continued and improved upon by the Romans, after which it remained static until the twentieth century. Indeed, Classical Rhetoric was and still is being taught today. However, as a result of the proliferation of mass communications via radio, movies, and television, and of empirical scientific methods, communication theory changed in the latter part of the twentieth century.

The model proposed by Aristotle is a linear one. In his Rhetoric, Aristotle tells us that we must consider three elements in communication:

The speaker
The speech
The audience


Aristotle’s model has a Speaker, so the emphasis is on personal debate. Rhetoric or persuasive communication is based on the Greek model. Many models and theories of communication stem from this early one. If you just think for a moment about the variety of communication acts, you shouldn't have too much difficulty seeing those elements. In some cases, of course, Aristotle's vocabulary doesn't quite fit. In the example of you reading the newspaper, no one is actually 'speaking' as such, but if we use, say, the terms 'writer' and 'text', then Aristotle's elements can still be found.

The Audience includes those who are listening to your speech. Yet, not all audiences are the same. An astute speaker will carefully assess the nature of the audience at hand to determine the best ways to address the audience. In thinking about the audience who will be listening to your speech, consider some of the following audience demographics:

• age
• sex
• family affiliation
• sexual orientation
• cultural diversity
• racial background
• economic and social standing
• political identification
• religious or philosophical orientation

Depending on who makes up your audience, you will select and shape your topic. To be responsive to the unique audience gathered for your speech you will need to take into account how your audience is predisposed on an emotional and psychological level to respond to you or your topic.
It is also meaningful to consider the attitudes, beliefs and values of the audience that constitute the frame of reference members of the audience bring to the situation:

An attitude is the predisposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward a topic.
A belief is a position or standard that audience members hold as valid or truthful.
A value is a deeply seated attitude commonly rooted in core beliefs, usually about the intrinsic worth of something.


The Evolution of Communication Study - Linear Models of Communication (S>M>R) to Convergence Models

Initially, linear models dominated communication research. We will look at several of the more famous linear models and then look at now convergence models of network communications evolved. In network or convergence models, the information-exchange relationships are the unit of analysis, rather than the individual as in linear models.

LASSWELL'S VIEW OF COMMUNICATION

One of the most often cited characterizations of communication was advanced by political scientist Harold Lasswell in 1948 as an outgrowth of his work in the area of propaganda. Lasswell provided a general view of communication that extended well beyond the boundaries of political science. He said that the communication process could best be explained by the simple statement: "Who says what to whom in what channel with what effect."
Lasswell's view of communication, similar to Aristotle's had some two thousand years earlier, focused primarily on verbal messages. It also emphasized the elements of speaker, message, and audience, but used different terms. Both men viewed communication as a one-way process in which one individual influenced others through messages. Lasswell was big on persuasion. The addition of the channel as a specific lement was a response to the growth in new communication media, such as print, the telegraph, the radio, etc. The inclusion of effects was an important break with past models which served mainly descriptive purposes. The study of effects initiated a new field: the communication approach to human behavioral change.

Lasswell's approach also provided a more generalized view of the goal or effect of communication than did the Aristotelian perspective. Lasswell's work suggested that there could be a variety of outcomes or effects of communication such as to inform, to entertain, to aggrevate, and to persuade.


SHANNON AND WEAVER'S MODEL

About a year after Lasswell published his view, Claude Shannon, the father of Information Theory, published some work he had done for Bell Telephone, which formed the basis for the Shannon and Weaver model.
Communication will be used here in a very broad sense to include all the procedures by which one mind may affect another. This, of course, involves not only written and oral speech, but also music, the pictorial arts, the theatre, the ballet, and in fact all human behavior.
The information source selects a desired message out of a set of possible messages . . . The selected message may consist of written or spoken words, or of pictures, music, etc.
The transmitter changes the message into the signal which is actually sent over the communication channel from the transmitter to the receiver.
Shannon and Weaver introduced the term noise, and a compensating correction channel. Noise was used as a label for any distortion that interfered with the transmission of a signal from the source to the destination, such as static on a radio, a blinding fog, or blurred, rain-soaked pages of a newspaper. They also advanced the notion of a "correction channel," which they regarded as a means of overcoming problems created by noise. The correction channel was operated by an observer who compared the initial signal that was sent with that received; when the two didn't match, additional signals would be transmitted to correct the error. [Check digits in electronic transfer of messages]
The academic field of communication "took off" when Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver published their model in The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1949). Their model is essentially a linear, left-to-right, one-way model of communication. It led to technical improvements in message transmission, and it served to bring together scholars from several disciplines to the scientific study of communication. Shannon and Weaver's most important contribution was probably their concept of information, which provided a central focus to the new field of communication research. It became the main conceptual variable around which the new intellectual approach began to grow.

SCHRAMM'S MODELS

In 1954, Wilbur Schramm provided several additional models. The first was essentially an elaboration of Shannon's.
Schramm saw communication as a purposeful effort to establish commonness between a source and receiver, noting that the word communication comes from the Latin communis, which meant common:

What happens when the source tries to build up this commonness with his intended receiver? First, the source encodes his message. That is, he takes the information or feeling he wants to share and puts it into a form that can be transmitted. the pictures in our heads can't be transmitted until they are coded ... Once coded and sent, a message is quite free of its sender ... And there is good reason ... for the sender to wonder whether his receiver will really be in tune with him, whether the message will be interpreted without distortion, whether the picture in the head of the receiver will bear any resemblance to that in the head of the sender.

Schramm's second model of communication is, in my opinion, far more aware of the subtleties involved. Without a common background and culture, there is little chance for a message to be interpreted correctly. He introduced the concept of a field of experience, which he thought to be essential in determining whether or not a message would be received at its destination in the manner intended by the source. The old "I know you believe you understand what you think I said, but I am not sure you realize that what you heard is not what I meant." He contended that without common fields of experience -- a common language, common backgrounds, a common culture, and so forth -- there was little chance for a message to be interpreted correctly.
To overcome the problem of noise, he suggested the importance of feedback. "An experienced communicator is attentive to feedback and constantly modifying his messages in light of what he observes in or hears from his audience." Hence the roles of sender and recipient are taken on by both parties, and communication becomes circular, and creates a relational model of communication and a beginning of a convergence or network approach.
The Schramm view of communication was more elaborate than many other developed during this period and added new elements in describing the process. In addition to re-emphasizing the elements of source, message, and destination, it suggested the importance of the coding and decoding process and the role of field experience.

THE WESTLEY-MACLEAN MODEL

Bruce Westley and Malcolm MacLean, Jr. departed from previous popular approaches in their model by suggesting that communication does not begin with a source, but, rather, with a series of signals or potential messages. Their model suggests that in a given situation some of the many signals in one's environment at any point in time were selected by an advocate and combined to form a new message -- a news story, advertisement, or speech, etc. If the audience had some first hand knowledge, they might question the advocate, and their questioning would be classified as feedback.
Events occur. Advocates (politicians) may choose to comment upon those events. What the advocates say may be picked up on by the channels (press, TV). The channels then move that information on to the audience. Channels may also choose to report directly on events. Note that the audience never interacts directly with the events or with the advocates -- this is the nature of mass media. Feedback is possible, from the channels to the advocate, and from the audience to the advocates and channels.
This model accounted for mass communication and interpersonal communication, as well as the relationship between the two. Also, it broadened and elaborated on the feedback concept.

KINCAIDS'S CONVERGENCE MODEL (1979)

In the convergence model, "communication" is defined as a process in which participants create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual understanding. Several cycles of information-sharing about a topic may increase mutual understanding but not complete it. Generally communication ceases when a sufficient level of mutual understanding has been reached for the task at hand. Mutual understanding is never perfect.
Information and mutual understanding are the dominant components of the convergence model of communication. Information shared by two or more participants in the communication process may lead to collective action, mutual agreements, and mutual understanding.
The unity of information and action is indicated by three bold lines information-action-believing; information-collection action; and information-action-believing]. All information is a consequence (or physical trace) of action, and through the various stages of human information-processing, action may become the consequence of information. A similar unity underlies the relationships among all the basic components of the convergence model. The communication process has no beginning and no end, only the mutually defining relationship among the parts which give meaning to the whole.
The convergence model represents human communication as a dynamic, cyclical process over time, characterized by:
mutual causation, rather than one-way mechanistic causation; and emphasizing the
Interdependent relationship of the participants, rather than a bias toward either the "source" or the "receiver" of a message.
Mutual understanding and mutual agreement are the primary goals of the communication process. They are the points toward which the participants either converge or diverge over time.
The convergence model of communication lead to a relational perspective of human communication because of the shift to information as opposed to messages as the content that is created and shared by participants. From this understanding, research into the "invisible college" and "gatekeepers" are possible, both topics of interest to information scientists.
Although acknowledging the role of interpretive processes that occur within individuals, Lawrence Kincaid (and later Everett Rogers and Kincaid) emphasized the information exchanges and networks between them. Their perspectives also carried forth the view of communication as a process rather than a single event, a point of view emphasized in nearly all communication models in recent years.

CRISIS COMMUNICATION

On August 5th, the test center for science and environment (CSE), an activist group in India focused on environmental sustainability issues, issued a press release stating “12 major cold drink brands sold in and around Delhi contain a deadly cocktail of pesticides residues”.
Results of this press release became a major crisis for Coca-Cola India. Sales had dropped by 30-40 percent in the two weeks on the heels of a 75 percent five-year growth trajectory and 25-30 percent year-to-date growth. Many leading clubs, retailers, restaurants, and college campuses across India had stopped selling Coca-Cola. This crisis threatened the momentum gained from a highly successful two-year marketing campaign that had given Coca-Cola market leadership over Pepsi.

A crisis for organization will be defined as “A major catastrophe that may occur either naturally or as a result of human error, intervention or even malicious intent. It can include tangible devastation, such as destruction of lives or assets, or intangible devastation, such as the loss of an organization’s credibility or other reputational damage. The latter outcomes may be the result of management’s response to tangible devastation or the result of human error.

Natural disasters like tsunami cannot be avoided, but there are many crisis – those caused by human error, negligence, or, in some cases, malicious intent – that planning could have prevented in the first place.

One type of human-caused crisis includes cases in which the company is clearly at fault, for instance cases of negligence. One example of this was the June 2000 sinking of a Panamanian tanker, the treasure, which spilled 400 tons of heavy bunker oil off the west coast of South Africa and threatened 40 percent of world’s African penguin population. Financial or accounting frauds constitute another example of man-made crisis.

Second type of human-caused crisis includes cases in which the company becomes a victim, such as Barclays, Citibank, eBay, and other major corporation targeted by online information theft attempts.

CRISIS CHARACTERISTICS

The element of surprise: - such as Philip Morris finding carcinogens in its filters or Pepsi learning of reports of a syringe found in diet Pepsi can.

Insufficient information: - the company doesn’t have all the facts right away, but very quickly finds itself in a position of having to do a lot of explaining.

The quick pace of events: - things escalate very rapidly.

Intense scrutiny: - executives are often unprepared for the media spotlight, which is instantaneous, as answers and the results normally take time.




7 Must-have Elements in Every Crisis Communications Kit

Chances are incredibly high that your company is going to experience a crisis of some kind in the next 5 years. It's how you handle that crisis with the media which will likely determine whether that crisis builds or seriously damages your company.

That's why it is vital that you develop a crisis communications and management plan that prepares you in advance for this eventuality.

In preparing this plan, keep in mind that this crisis may allow you to continue business as normal, or it may result in a situation where you aren't able to get access to the tools you normally use to do your job (natural disaster, lockout, etc.) so your crisis communications kit needs to provide the capability for you to provide the appearance of normality even in the most abnormal situations.

Thus it's important for your crisis communications kit to not only be duplicated in some offsite location, but to also include information, disks, graphics, computer files, photos, etc. that are normally readily at your fingertips in your office.

Here's a list of seven items that should be included in any crisis communications kit:

1. A list of the members of the crisis management team, which should include, at minimum, the CEO, a trusted assistant/top manager from the CEO's office, heads of each department, public relations and marketing team members, legal and security. In case of actual crisis, this team will be focused down to the group applicable to that specific crisis.

2. Contact information for key officers, spokespeople, and crisis management team members including company and personal phone numbers, email addresses, cell numbers, pagers, faxes, instant message handles, addresses, even spouse's cell numbers.

3. Fact sheets on the company, each division, each physical location, and each product offered.These should be in camera-ready condition, plus available on a disk in a generally-accepted word processor format (Microsoft Word) so they can be revised and printed out if necessary on a computer external to your facilities. Photos should also be included.

4. Profiles and biographies for each key manager in your company, again in camera-ready condition and on disk.

5. Copies of your company, division and product logos, your press release format and the scanned in signature of your CEO on disk in a format that works on your internal word processing program (plus one in Microsoft Word in case you have to work on a computer that isn't tied to your network.)

6. Pre-written scripts answering key questions that you have generated through your crisis scenario analysis. Included in these scripts should be the words you use to say "we don't have that information yet, but will let you know as soon as it becomes available."

7. Contact information for each of your key media contacts both locally, nationally, and if appropriate, key financial press and analysts. Contact information for your appropriate political, regulatory, and union leaders should also be included. Don't be afraid to go overboard here - if you have a large chemical release, your CEO will probably want to call not only the Mayor, but the Governor and congressional representatives.

Handling a Crisis

A crisis can happen to any company at any time. When it does your hard-earned reputation is at risk. Sometimes you can see a potential crisis coming, it slowly builds until an event - possibly minor in itself, explodes the issue and it becomes critical. Sometimes a crisis comes out of the blue.

Ten Things You Should Do

1. Gather the facts. Know what happened, do not speculate or allow others to speculate.

2. Relay the known facts openly and honestly. If some facts are not yet known, say so and explain what is happening to discover them.

3. Show humanity and concern for any injured or aggrieved parties. If possible ensure relatives and those directly concerned are contacted before making public announcements.

4. Offer practical help if you can. Lawyers may argue that to offer money to an injured party is to admit guilt. But to show concern is a sign of humanity. Concern can be expressed via a hardship fund, help-line, or similar temporary emergency channel. The words "without prejudice" may keep the lawyers happy but creates an impression of defensiveness and unfeeling.

5. Co-operate with investigators or regulatory authorities. They are only doing their job. Being obstructive will be interpreted as 'something to hide'.

6. Have a senior person as your authoritative spokesperson. Make sure this person is briefed continuously and maintain one consistent message.

7. Brief all stakeholders. Employees and unions, shareholders, investors and brokers, trade bodies, the community, the media will all need to know the facts as soon as is possible.

8. Have a dossier of relevant facts to hand that could support your case. Health and safety records, training practices, quality systems and accreditation's, test reports and so on can help refute any early claims of negligence.

9. Issue regular updates as more facts emerge. Tell the media or group concerned when the next statement will be available.

10. Monitor the media and the web. This will help you see how the issue is being discussed, and if necessary, issue messages to reduce speculation, misreporting or mischief.

Five Things You Should Not Do

1. Don't speculate about events or causes. This will be reported and repeated as fact and will be difficult to erase.

2. Don't close communication. If you adopt the "No comment" approach, the press will find comment from elsewhere - possibly, for the cost of a few pints - from the person you sacked last week.

3. Don't speak ill of any injured party. Naturally, sympathy is always with the victim so don't shift blame. Formal proceedings will uncover true causes and events leading up to the crisis.

4. Don't put out contradictory messages. Remember what you say will be recorded or written down. Any contradiction will be exploited by sharp journalists.

5. Don't go on holiday while it blows over! This perhaps perceived to be one of the greatest sins of all. Be prepared to abandon your family holiday if you are already away - you can always go on another one.

Reference: -
Argenti, Paul A. (2007). Corporate communication (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill Irwin, ISBN: 0072990546

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

How to communicate with their employees is important for every company. A well formulate and managed internal communication provide better access to employees. Internal communication is a collaborative effort between the corporate communication and human resources departments, as it covers topics from employee benefit packages to the company’s strategic objectives. More and more, companies are making sure their employees understand the new marketing initiatives they are communicating externally, and are uniting workforce behind the common goals and corporate strategies. This type of communication requires the expertise of strong corporate communicators who are also well-connected to senior management and the corporate strategy process.

Manager need to recognize that, if they provide information to employees and also listen to them, those employees will be excited about their work, connected to the company’s vision, and able to further the goals of the organization.

Internal communication is considered a vital tool for binding an organization, enhancing employee morale, promoting transparency and reducing attrition.

Deloitte and Touche Human Capital conducted a survey among American CEOs who were asked which HR issues are very important to the success of the organisation, 95 percent of them said “effective internal communication.” Simultaneously, only 22 percent agreed that they thought it was being delivered effectively. “I agree with the conclusions. In most organisations the quality of communication is either not effective or is absent. In the IT industry, human issues are even more important because people are an asset to the organization; their skill-sets are the capital, their mindset is the driver,” says Sanjay Mandlik, corporate champion-HR & TQM, Emerson Network Power (India). He strongly believes that the HR person should be highly qualified in understanding the communication process, and should champion it with full ownership.
Internal communication is the via media that links an organization. It is the foundation that holds the work culture, policy and processes, goals and vision together

The effort is not without its share of challenges. Reading habits of employees, the ability to understand and capture internal and external events timely, building formal and informal communication channels, and their own credibility are some of the challenges internal communication team faces.

Example: Both Starbucks Coffee Co. and Kinko’s Inc. hired outside consultants to conduct internal communication audits to identify strengths and weakness in those companies existing communication practices. Detailed questionnaires uncovered precisely how employees viewed internal communications and helped management develop possible solutions to communication problems. In addition, Kinko’s used in-person interviews and videoconferencing facilities to conduct nationwide focus groups and uncover the sentiments of employees from region to region. In addition to conducting an overarching communication audit, regular “temperature checks” of employee opinions can be valuable in ensuring that communication channels and approaches continue to meet employees’ evolving needs.

IMPORTANCE OF INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

• It provides information and encourages sharing by driving and supporting the organization’s short-term and long-term goals and objectives.
• It ensures that these initiatives are implemented and followed at a local level.
• It ensures that knowledge-sharing and communication processes are part of the daily workflow across all functions of the business.
• It helps drive ownership and shared engagement.

Internal communication should take place as a series of steps and not as an isolated event. Well-planned and delivered internal communication can drive the culture in an organization. The most important thing is the credibility of an information source. To get the desired result from the audience, the trust factor must be strong.

While formulating internal communication strategy, the following factors should be taken care of:

• The purpose should be clear.


• The timing and medium are important.


• Language must be used carefully.


• The tools of communication should be effective.


• When people are vulnerable, their tolerance for ambiguity decreases, so they need to be told clearly to feel secure.
• Communication has to be supported by action.

The fallout of bad internal communication

Short-term impact
· Spread of misinformation.
· Erosion of employee trust and confidence.
· Conflicts between employees and management.
· Misinformed employees can make wrong decisions.
· Internal brand image suffers.

Long-term impact
· Dissatisfaction among employees leads to higher attrition.
· Lack of coherent and shared vision.
· Low employee morale results in lower productivity.
· Impact on company's stocks.
· Organisation's external brand value suffers.

Effective internal communication brings ownership, a sense of belonging, respect as well as accountability. “Insufficient communication is something like solitary confinement wherein you don’t know what is happening outside and how you are linked to those developments. This can be an extremely no-win situation for any organization,

Internal communication is much more than posting newsletters and holding pizza parties, the strategy has to be formulated by the top management in coordination with the executing team.



A SOUND COMMUNICATION STRATEGY TO INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS CAN SERVE TO:

• Optimize internal information-flow and communication across the organization.


• Augment, improve and develop existing communications through segmentation, customization and 24/7 Community access (e.g. online)


• Align employee efforts with corporate direction.


• Allow employees to make faster, cheaper and more informed decisions.


• Increase employee motivation and satisfaction.


• Provide valuable employee feedback/insight.


• Foster trust in senior management.


• Identify and tackle problems at an early stage.


• Reduce the ‘grapevine’ impact.


• Build upon the capacities of individual employees and internal teams.


• Promote access to and the effective usage of existing research resources.


• Facilitate two-way communications.

Examples of online Communication tools include:

• Corporate blogs


• Employee to senior management’ question/comment systems (usually via email)
  Forums/chat rooms, organised by topic/senior manager


• Dedicated senior management homepages on the intranet


• Web conferencing


• Video streaming of senior management presentations via the Intranet

Taking the typical example of corporate blogging, companies such as IBM, Daimler Chrysler and Dresdner Kleinwort Wasserstein use blogs to encourage internal communication between peers. Moreover, General Motors, Boeing, SAP, Wiley and Sun Microsystems, are examples of companies that employ blogs as a means for senior level executives to express their opinions internally on topics such as business, recent company news/rumors, the operating market, competitor developments, or industry trends.


Example: JetBlue airline, it is common for employees to be on a first-name basis with senior executives. Each employees spends his or her first day at an orientation, including an hour with president and COO Dave Barger, CEO Dave Neelman, and vice president of people Vincent Stabile to talk about JetBlue brand, airline economics, how to interact with customers, as well as the fundamentals of company’s culuture and values. Many credit highly personal training and management style with JetBlue’s low annualized employee turnover rate of between 10 to 12 percent versus the industry average of approximately 20 to 24 percent.

JetBlue holds meetings on the last Friday of each month, when the president spends two hours discussing industry happenings and hosting a live Q&A session. While 200 employees typically attend in person, the video is also posted and broadcast on the intranet, generating thousands of hits from those not able to attend.

With all sophisticated technology available to communicate with employees today, such as e-mail, intranets, blogs, and satellite meetings connecting distant offices, the most important factor in internal communication begins with the manager who has a basic responsibility to his or her employees. That the responsibility to listen to what they have to say and get to know who they really are as individuals.

Successful companies recognise that their employees are the ambassadors of the firm and their brands. Here are some ideas for improving internal communication.

Ten Things You Should Do

1. Develop an open and transparent culture: - Have a system of regular briefings and consultation to keep employees informed of market trends, trading performance, business developments, emerging issues and changes.
2. Encourage and value feedback. This may include questions and suggestions that will be passed up the management chain for an assured response if they cannot be answered on the spot.
3. Use all relevant channels. Communication can embrace briefings, notice boards, internal e-mail, intranet, employee annual reports, newsletters, even corporate video and business TV.
4. Explain change. Where significant changes are under consideration, take time to explain the background and why this is important to the business and to those affected. The issues must be understood and ownership and responsibility shared.
5. Engage and involve. Your employees are also consumers and often so are shareholders. Ask them what they think of your new products, advertising campaign and new corporate identity.
6. Project and protect the brand. Corporate clothing is a good way to project the brand, but make sure this is of good quality and cleaned and replaced at regular intervals.
7. Be consistent. Ensure that internal briefings and public communication are consistent. Mixed messages make all stakeholders nervous.
8. Create role models. Acknowledge and reward the exceptional performer, winning teams and individuals who make worthwhile suggestions.
9. Live the message. Ensure that planned programmes and agreed changes roll out to schedule and that everyone, even the chairman, participates.
10. Train and train some more. Training builds skills and confidence, it can reinforce good practice. It is an investment that shows your employees they are valued.
    

Five Things You Should Not Do

1. Don’t keep people in the dark. This will only allow rumour to spread and issues to become exaggerated.
2. Don’t spin. People appreciate plain speaking and honesty. If there is a feeling that you are only telling part of the story, confidence will be undermined.
3. Don’t forget the isolated. Many companies have sales or service people in the field, branch operations and even part time workers who all need to be included in the communication loop.
4. Don’t neglect feedback. This is often the most valuable part of the communication process - it shows concern, involvement and shared ownership of issues. It can often provide insights that are not available from management ivory towers.
5. Don't panic. Public speaking can unnerve some people. Develop a training programme if this is an issue.

Reference: -

Argenti, Paul A. (2007). Corporate communication (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill Irwin, ISBN: 0072990546